University ol the State ol Sew York Bnlletln 

Entered as second-class matter August 2, igrs, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., 

under the act of August 24, rpia 

Published fortnightly 

No. 625 ALBANY, N. Y. OCTOBER 15, 1916 

:> .i' •' —< ■. 

^ Division of Agricultural and Industrial Education 

THE MANUAL ARTS IN NEW YORK STATE 

BY 

ROYAL B. FARNUM 
State Specialist in Art Education 




/ / 

/ -- 



ALBANY 

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

1916 

Au/io^ap,“i. 


T34r-My 16-2500 



















THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 

September i, 1916 
Regents of the University 
With years when terms expire 


TTlt? 


1926 Pliny T. Sexton LL.B. LL.D. Chancellor - Palmyra 

1927 Albert Vander Veer M.D. M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. 

Vice Chancellor - -- -- -- -- Albany 

1922 Chester S. Lord M.A. LL.D. - - - - - Brooklyn 

1918 William Nottingham M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. - Syracuse 
1921 -Francis M. Carpenter ------- Mount Kisco 

1923 Abram I. Elkus LL.B. D.C.L. ----- New York 

1924 Adelbert Moot LL.D. ------- Buffalo 

1925 Charles B. Alexander M.A. LL.B. LL.D. • 

Litt.D. - - Tuxedo 

1919 John Moore - -- -- -- -- - Elmira 

1928 Walter Guest Kellogg B.A. - - - - ' - Ogdensburg 
1917 William Berri - -- -- -- -- Brooklyn 

1920 James Byrne B.A. LL.B. ------ New York 


President of the University and Commissioner of Education 


John H. Finley M.A. LL.D. L.H.D. 

Deputy Commissioner and Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education 


Thomas E. Finegan M.A. Pd.D. LL.D. 


Assistant Commissioner for Higher Education 

Augustus S. Downing M.A. L.H.D. LL.D. 

Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education 

Charles F. Wheelock B.S. LL.D. 

Director of State Library 

James I. Wyer, Jr, M.L.S. 

Director of Science and State Museum 

John M. Clarke Ph.D. D.Sc. LL.D. 

Chiefs and Directors of Divisions 

Administration, George M. Wiley M.A. 

Agricultural and Industrial Education, Arthur D. Dean D.Sc., 

jAMtf SULLTVAN. ft. ^ Director 

■ Archives and History, 

Attendance, James D. Sullivan 

Educational Extension, William R. Watson ‘B.S. 

Examinations and Inspections, Harlan H. Horner M.A., 

Director 

Law, Frank B. Gilbert B.A. 

Library School, Frank K. Walter M.A. M.L.S. 

School Buildings and Grounds, Frank H. Wood M.A. 

School Libraries, Sherman Williams Pd.D. 

Statistics, Hiram C. Case 

Visual Instruction, Alfred W. Abrams Ph.B. 


D, if D, 

L: 1918 


«*»> ^ ^ • 




r “ 

L. J 

















University o! the State o! New York Bulletin 

Entered as second-class matter August 2, 1913, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under the 

act of August 24, 1912 

Published fortnightly 


No. 625 ALBANY, N. Y October 15, 1916 


Division of Agricultural and Industrial Education 

THE MANUAL ARTS IN NEW YORK STATE 

BY 

ROYAL B. FARNUM 
State Specialist in Art Education 

Since the introduction of the Syllabus for Elementary Schools 
for 1910, little has been accomplished looking toward the definite 
and complete organization of the manual arts. The following 
report presents the conditions which prevail at this time throughout 
the State and in addition offers preliminary steps in the develop¬ 
ment and organization of this subject. The treatment is general 
in character and seeks only to provide suggestions which may 
lead to further definition of the subject. 

PRESENT STATUS OF THE MANUAL ARTS 

Organization. At present the organization of the manual arts 
in a school department varies in different localities. It may employ: 

1 A director of the manual arts who supervises all the drawing, 
manual training and household arts, with assistants. 

2 A supervisor who has charge of art and manual work, with 
assistants. 

3 Separate supervisors of art and manual work. 

4 A manual training teacher who teaches woodwork in the 
seventh and eight grades and high school, a supervisor of hand¬ 
work covering the first six grades, and a supervisor of art. 

5 A manual training teacher and a supervisor of art, the latter 
looking after the constructive work up to the seventh grade. 

6 A supervisor of art who offers some construction work, usually 
only in the lower grades. 

The teacher. Where a director is employed a man is usually 
in charge. He is a technical school or a college graduate witli 
some fyractical experience. Supervisors of the manual arts in the 
lower grades are usually women having professional school tiain- 
ing. In this State a number of women are employed as shop 
instructors in the seventh and eighth grades. In some instances 








6 


THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 


practical men who have worked at the woodworking trade and who 
have a fair education, with a good command of English, are 
employed. 

The accommodations. A shop is usually a room in the school 
basement equipped with tools, benches etc. for boys of the sixth 
grade and beyond. In some cases lower grades are permitted 
to use it and, in a few instances, the high school crafts classes 
make use of it. 

Courses of study generally used. Almost invariably courses 
in the manual arts above the fifth grade are confined to woodwork. 
Below this grade the lighter and more pliable mediums are used. 
The courses in the lower grades are either worked out in con¬ 
junction with the drawing outlines or as separate problems. There 
is more and better correlation as a rule where the first method 
prevails. 

Usually the work in the sixth, seventh and eighth grades is 
confined to a definite series of exercises and projects in w'ood, 
beginning with wdiittling and ending wfith a few different personal 
pieces of furniture. 

From the beginning, the courses of study consist of problems 
involving certain materials wdiose handling is adapted to the age 
of the pupil, and processes which offer more or less graded steps 
in construction. All the projects listed are supposed to be com¬ 
pleted by each child, often resulting in a duplication of each exer¬ 
cise equal in number to the number of pupils in the class. Tow'ard 
the end of the year in the seventh and eighth grades a number of 
different problems are suggested or the child may be asked to 
choose something he w^ants to make. 

Methods of instruction in common use. In general, lessons are 
dictated in the lower grades, and presented in the form of black¬ 
board drawings or blueprints in the upper grades. In some shops 
rough designs by the boys are submitted before starting on the 
work. The teacher often talks on tool processes and wood prop¬ 
erties in the upper grades wTile in the first four grades, at least, 
the various holidays offer suggestions for their problems which 
may have some application to these events. 

Design. For a number of years there has been an attempt to 
correlate drawdng with the manual work in w^ood, especially in 
the direction of design. The attempt has been unsatisfactory, result¬ 
ing only in a slight variation of the original design or a poor 
ornament forced wTere it w’as not needed. With the lowxr grade 
construction, the results have been better owing to the fact that so 
often the w’ork has come under the one supervisor. 



Tools of our forefathers from Schoharie, N. Y. A carpenter’s brace, 
a sugar cutter, a button mold, a leather shoe string former. Note the 
graceful lines and decoration on the cutter and the hint of decoration on 
the head of the brace. 



A beautiful example of woodcraft. A family sleigh of Hendrick Jansen, 
of Middleburg, N. V. Made about the middle of the eighteenth century. 
In addition to the excellent craftsmanship note the beauty of contour and 
line. 



















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A colonial kitchen in the Quincy mansion, Mass. A study of this illustration will reveal 
many successful combinations of beauty and utility, which make the work of the early men 
and women of our country so admirable. 
























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Italian candlestick of elaborate design showing architec- A carved chair of ancient Saxon make. A problem in 

tural influence. Note that notwithstanding the excess of woodturning with carved back. Note how the human form 

ornament the construction is plainly apparent. demanded a difference in shape between the seat and the 

space between the arms and back. The liack is not so well 
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1 




MANUAL ARTS IN NEW YORK STATE 


7 


Summary. Ihe entire situation may be summarized as follows: 

1 There has been little unity of result owing to the diversity of 
organization. 

2 There has been no attempt to relate the work of the early 
grades to that of the seventh and eighth grades and high school. 

3 1 here has been no attempt to give in eight or twelve years of 
educational work a general knowledge of all the common mediums 
developed in sequence from the first grade. 

4 There have appeared no effective results of training in good 
design. 

5 There has been no broad or generally useful purpose back of 
the work other than to provide motor activity so necessary in 
education. 

FUTURE POSSIBIUITIES FOR THE MANUk^U ARTS 

Definition. The following statement defines the term “ manual 
arts ” as interpreted in this report. It at least affords a common 
ground for discussion: 

Manual arts is that form of activity which involves the handling and 
manipulation of any or all constructive materials which may be used in 
any common public school, which necessitates a proper understanding 
of common tools and which demands a knowledge of the principles of 
beauty as applied to constructive design. 

Included under this head are manual training, handwork, ele¬ 
mentary construction, etc. 

Aim. The manual arts in the public schools aim to give to the 
boys and girls 

1 An intelligent understanding of the possibilities and limita¬ 
tions of common, practical mediums. 

2 A knowledge of the proper handling of tools and of tool 
processes required in the manipulation of the material. 

3 A practical knowledge of the common laws of beauty required 
in constructive design. 

4 An insight into the commercial and industrial production of 
familiar forms. 

5 Coordination of mind and hand with a fair degree of skill. 

6 Initiative in meeting a problem and overcoming it. 

Field. The field of the manual arts is limited only by the school 
itself. Any medium or material which may be handled in a 
practical way will therefore enter this field. It must be understood, 
however, that this applies to the common public school, not the 
prevocational, the vocational, the trade or the special high school, 


8 


THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 


and in this bulletin it does not include domestic and household 
arts. Work in the manual arts enters all grades from the kinder¬ 
garten through the high schools. 

Its opportunity. Notwithstanding the present interest in voca¬ 
tional education, the manual arts will always have a place in the 
curriculums of the general public schools. Its opportunity is four¬ 
fold : (I) it is a necessary motor training in general education, 
and promotes a spirit of service; (2) it forms a basis for a prac¬ 
tical knowledge of the common constructive mediums, with a 
healthy attitude toward labor; (3) it offers occasion for the 
ultimate development of special classes, prevocational and indus¬ 
trial in character ; (4) it affords opportunity for first-hand study 
of beauty in construction. 

Proposed plan. It is proposed to develop the work in manual 
arts in such a way that there will be progressive courses beginning 
in the first grade and leading to and through the high school. 
Different localities must develop individual courses, but two points 
will be insisted upon from the beginning: (i) all problems 
shall be constructively sound, and (2) every problem will be con¬ 
sidered equally from the standpoint of utility and beauty. In other 
words, flimsy paper work, when stronger mediums should be used, 
will be deprecated and erratic designs wrought through ignorance 
will be rejected. 

Problems will not be offered merely for the sake of motor train¬ 
ing. There shall be back of the courses an underlying idea and 
broad purpose running through not only a single year but through¬ 
out the completed course. In order that this may be accomplished, 
certain centers may be developed about which the work will be 
planned. 

Centers, i In the primary grades the following centers are 
suggested as having been successfully worked out: 

Play, or pageantry and games 

Home, including foreign homes 

Food, including preparation and distribution 

Clothing, including personal and foreign costume 

Transportation 

In these grades the course must necessarily outline specific 
problems which are largely dictated, but which permit some 
individual variation. 

2 In the intermediate grades the following centers are sug¬ 
gested as having been successfully worked out: 



An antique hand chest combining iron with wood and leather. 
Note how the decorative bands emphasize the constructive features 
of the iron straps to which the handle is attached. 



An old chest with hand forged lock and carved panels. A beautiful 
enrichment without interference of construction 


























































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Chest of Miles Standish. An interesting decorative treatment utilizing 
woodturning and paneling on a box construction. Note that in no instance 
does decoration seek to hide construction. 



An old money chest of colonial days. Note the decorative effect of 
straps, rivets, lock etc. as well as the inconsistent decoration of painted 
flowers and birds. 


















MANUAL ARTS IN NEW YORK STATE 


9 


All those given above for the primary grades 

Occupations: (a) industrial; (b) commercial; (c) agricultural 

School 

Utensils 

Mechanics 

In these grades some attempt at individual work should be made 
and pupils should be urged to donate suggestions and ideas based 
on the center which is under consideration. 

3 In the grammar and high school grades the work should 
become independent, individual and varied. Models and type 
forms should be eliminated. A general problem should be offered 
with opportunity for each pupil to approach it in his particular way. 
The problem offered, however, should have a structural, mechanical 
or craft significance and such objects as the towel roller, the coat 
hanger, the blotter rocker, the pen tray, etc. (objects which involve 
construction peculiar to themselves) should be avoided. 

In these grades pu])ils work with a greater degree of under¬ 
standing. The work, then, may be offered as follows: 

Problems involving types of construction in different materials 
Nailing and riveting 
Joining, molding, etc. 

Problems which have an industrial meaning 

W'ork involving mechanical, electrical, wind and water 
devices and structural form 

Problems involving factory production 
Division of labor 
Jig work, etc. 

Problems involving group work 

Big projects with a variety of processes 

Problems involving use of power machinery 
Use of labor-saving devices 

Planning the course. To plan successfully a course based upon 
the foregoing, it is necessary: 

1 To gain the cooperation of the education authorities in the 
place. This insures not only kindly interest but more often good 
suggestions and advice. 

2 To gain the cooperation of the lower grade handwork teacher, 
if there be one. In such a case the whole scheme should be planned 
together, the shop man contributing his shop knowledge, the grade 
supervisor offering her teaching experience. 

3 To determine upon a definite center or centers to be developed. 

4 To hold unhesitatingly to those centers throughout the year at 
least. 


lO 


THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 


5 To develop the problems in sequence so that educational 
progress follows; in other words, to relate the work of the pre¬ 
ceding grade to the one that follows so that a steady growth is 
apparent. Thus the shop man will know what to expect of his 
])uj)ils and the lower grade teacher can intelligently train for the 
future shop. 

Instruction. No single line of instruction should be exclusively 
followed. Such a course of action would lead to exercises, type 
models and stale methods which should be studiously avoided. 

Proper instruction should include dictation, blackboard draw¬ 
ing, blueprint, drawings, notes, actual work by the instructor, class 
lessons, individual teaching, free class discussion and a wealth of 
illustrative material. 

The pupil should be led to appreciate the medium in which he is 
working, its limitations and its possibilities; he should be taught 
the value of time and the saving of material; he should be told the 
best and quickest way of doing his work; he should be led to 
understand the correct use, the meaning and the proper care of his 
tools; he should be given to understand the value of his school¬ 
mates’ time and should be taught to respect it; he should finally 
be brought to the stage of independent initiative, a point where he 
recognizes an individual’s responsibility to his work in hand. 

The education and development of the child is, then, the final 
end and aim of the work and the manual arts has its peculiar 
function in the educative process which looks toward this result, 
a function quite unlike any other of the school subjects. 

Equipment. Lack of equipment should have little influence in 
preventing the introduction of the manual arts in a school system. 
In the lower grades little is needed. In the upper grades much 
may be done with a few tools, which may be the means of making 
more. In fact, there is excellent opportunity here to prove the 
practical value of the manual arts. 

Where the school is permitted to equip a shop, the best tools 
should be obtained. They should consist of individual sets and 
single pieces for class use. Smaller pieces of power machinery 
should also be installed. Much may be said in argument for only 
hand tools, but in the broad courses herein suggested, pupils will 
get plenty of hand work. Because of the big nature of the prob¬ 
lems it is essential that some machinery also be available. To rip 
laboriously long boards and plane them by hand, for example, is 
impractical from the industrial standpoint and a great waste of 
time. Furthermore, eighth grade and high school boys should 
know about machinery as an essential part of their manual training. 


MANUAL ARTS IN NEW YORK STATE 


II 


The shop need not necessarily be in the basement of a building. 
W ith modern soundproof floors there is no reason why shops may 
not be placed anywhere in order that proper light and room may 
be assured. 

Teachers. Teachers of the manual arts should have a natural 
ability for handwork. They should be inventive and practical and 
should be able to adapt their work to the community in which they 
are placed. 

Teachers in the lower grades should thoroughly familiarize them¬ 
selves with the more pliable mediums they are called upon to 
handle. They should use them in practical ways with as many 
direct applications as ]:>ossible. Problems should have lasting value. 
The making of flimsy and frivolous things to throw away is 
strongly dej)recated. 

Teachers in the sho])s should be thoroughly familiar with the 
industrial ])hases of the work they may ofifer. This means that the 
industrial and commercial life of the community should be under¬ 
stood and recognized and trade practices in the manipulation of the 
materials should be known. It is essential, therefore, that shop 
instructors familiarize themselves with industrial plants, factories, 
school and trade magazines, books etc., and further that they them¬ 
selves be practical workers in the dififerent mediums they use in 
their courses. 

Elements of beauty. Many years ago the state of Massachusetts 
introduced industrial drawing into the schools for the pur])ose of 
influencing the character of design in the industrial product. New 
York State soon followed. Undoubtedly there has been improve¬ 
ment in the beauty of our products of manufacture, but whether 
this is wholly due to the introduction of drawing is extremely 
doubtful. In some lines of decoration, however, there is no ques¬ 
tion as to the direct influence of the public schools. But when one 
views the average exhibit of manual arts, the elements of beauty 
seem to have escaped forever. The poorly proportioned boxes, the 
saw-edged brackets, the curled iron lamps, the meat-block tables 
and the immovable chairs compel one to gaze without hope on 
objects from which beauty has vanished. 

Beauty is not such an elusive creature that we can not hope to 
enslave her, even by the children in the public schools. It is as 
easy to make a chair leg i^ inches square as one 2 inches. It is 
as easy to make a rhythmic graceful and refined curve as a series 
of grotesque ridges. It is as easy to make a box based on the 


12 


THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 


‘‘ golden oblong ” as one patterned after a square prism. These 
are simple points but too often neglected. 

Before attempting beauty in the problem it is well to apply the 
principles to the shop itself. Order, balance and harmony are 
often lacking in the beginning. A neat, orderly shop should be a 
prere([uisite. Thereafter harmony should prevail. 

After this, elements of beauty may be considered in the work 
itself. These elements enter a problem in two ways: they become 
part of the construction and we term it constructive design; they 
may appear in applied ornament and we term it decorative design. 

Enrichment of construction may be obtained through line, 
through proportion and through shape. Bevels, tapers and curves 
may beautify line; variation and similarity, but not duplication of 
masses, may beautify proportion; and grace of contour may 
beautify shape. 

Enrichment through decoration may be obtained through finishes, 
glazes etc., through color, moldings, carving, engraving etc., 
through inlay, weaving, embroidery etc. Decoration in any prob¬ 
lem of constructive design must always be subservient to the con¬ 
struction. It must never assert itself. This point alone is too 
often violated. In general, the decoration must conform to the 
shape and use of the object. It should follow the general contour 
and may never hide construction, but rather should emphasize it. 

Mediums. The following mediums listed under their handling 
processes are found practicable for school use: 

I Folding and bending materials 


Paper 

Soft metals 

Cardboard 


Weaving materials 


Paper 

Yarns 

Leather 

Roping 

Splints 

Cord 

Reed 

Jute 

Raffia 

Thread 

Worsted 

Pine needles 

Cane 

Tilo strand 

Chenille 


Binding materials 


Paste 

Wire 

Glue 

Nails 

Thread 

Screws 

Solder 

Bolts 

Putty 

Cement 

Passepartout 




I'oot stoves from Schoharie county. Note the mortised construction and 
the decorative arrangement of holes in the tin and wood. 




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; . 






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The cathedral library at Gloucester. Note the excessive ornament in 
the chairs which tends to banish beauty and suggests weak construction. 
Contrast this with the simple decorative treatment of the beamed roof 
and the excellent seat at the right of the chairs. 

























First grade work in the manual arts having a definite purpose and 
showing practical application to a broad theme, “ The Story of the 
Knights.” Los Angeles, Cal. 





























































































1 



MANUAL ARTS IN NEW YORK STATE 


13 


4 Recording materials 
Pencil 
Crayon 
Charcoal 


Chalk 

Paint 

Ink 


Type 

Wood blocks 


5 Modeling materials 
Clay 

Concrete 


Plaster 

Sand 


Plastercine 


6 Building materials 
Blocks 
Metal 
Cardboard 


Leather 

Textiles 

Tablets 


Wood 

Glass 


A graduate of a high school certainly, and it is not too exacting 
to say that graduates of grammar grades, should have a working 
knowledge of most of these mediums, and a reasonably complete 
understanding of the six processes. 

Illustrative material. As a general rule the dearth of illus¬ 
trative material in the manual arts is very noticeable. Art depart¬ 
ments usually have large supplies, but aside from a few type 
models and one or two trade exhibits, there is little or nothing in 
the manual departments. 

Perhaps this is a reason for the lack of beauty in the manual 
problem. To this reason may be added another, namely, the lack of 
historical background on the part of the teacher. Among manual 
training men, especially, little is known of the history and develop¬ 
ment of the various crafts. A study of the great craftsmen from 
Bazaleel and Aholiab to Cellini and to William Morris, with illus¬ 
trations and descriptions of great craft masterpieces would neces¬ 
sarily tend to introduce a feeling of the extreme importance of 
beauty in design. 

Illustrative material should consist of pictorial examples of the 
various crafts, masterpieces both ancient and modern. There should 
be files of mounted photographs, magazine reproductions and clip¬ 
pings. There should be actual objects, beautiful in color, shape, 
construction and decoration. Pupils should be encouraged to bring 
this material. Donations should be solicited. Every school should 
have its file and museum cabinet if it can not afiford a room. 
Here these valuable suggestions, examples of the best as well as 
those not so good, should be placed ready for the pupils to see and 
to study. These exhibits and illustrations should cover the whole 
field of constructive material and should be a constantly growing 
collection. The illustrations in this bulletin are examples of what 
should be found in such museums. 


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A carved door in Holy Trinity Church. Stratford- beautiful Gothic door in Rochester Cathedral. 

on-Avon. Note the simplicity of the carving, the old * door has two main horizontal divisions of 

knocker and latch and the lack of the customary unequal size and shape. Note how most of the 

paneling. carving centers on and emphasises those lines of 

division. 



















































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Wrought iron handles from Niirembiirg, the home of 
the finest craft work in this medium. Beauty enhances 
but does not detract from the usefulness of these objects. 















Greek cups in gold repousse. The straight sides permit of more elaborate 
treatment than if the contours were curved from the base to the top. 



Door handles from Nurcml)urg. h'ine examples of the harmoniciis 
union of beauty and utility. Note the consistent treatment of shape in 
the handles and the plates on which they swing. 
























Pewter lamps from the collection of Dr George W. Nash, Hurley. N. Y. An illustration offering 
suggestions but iiot copy for the work in wood or metalturning. Xote that in every case the true 
function or purpose of the object is apparent. These are all wick lam])s for the burning of oil. 
To stick a 40 Watt electric bulb in one of them is unfortunately what many people do today. 











Anglo-Saxon gold bracelets. Examples of early craft Illustrations of jewelry from the class of 

work with effective repousse and line decoration. Miss Carrie Harmon, Geneva, N. Y. 




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Metal work from the lii^h school classes under Miss Xanc}- Cook at 
h'nlton, N. A practical type of manual arts work. 






Applied design in leather under the direction of Miss Niancy Cook, 
Fulton, N. Y. This work is practical, serviceable and easily handled at a 
minimum expense. It is a worthy outlet for design expression. 



Api)lied design from the Polytechnic Flementary School, Pasadena. Cal. 
under the direction of Mr Rudolph IP Schaeffer. This illustrates a sincere 
correlation between the studio and the shop. 





















Manual arts work in metal under Douglas Donaldson of the Manual Training High 
School, Los Angeles, Cal. Note the varied applications of this easily handled manual 
arts medium. 




















































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An exhil)it of drawing and manual arts in the Polytechnic Elementary School, Pasadena, Cal. 
Under the direction of Mr Rudolph h'. Schaeffer. Note the lack of crowded stuff usually found in 
such exhibits, and the variety of product. 





















Pottery from the high school at St Louis, Mo. An excellent form of manual art. 












P)asket\veaving in the grades under the direction of Miss Carrie Hannon 
of Geneva, N. V. After the stitches and weaving are learned the major 
part of this work should he accomplished either before or after the present 
five-hour school day. An excellent form of handwork. 



'I'he cradle of Perigren White of Mayflower fame. Xote the decorative 
weaving and firm construction. _ _ ____ 





























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Elaborate wooclcarving in Kashmir state, India. A richly decorated 
stand or table of many vertical supports under construction. Note that 
each individual is working on a different piece and the foreman is doing 
the assembling. 



Men weaving and a woman spinning for Kashmir shawls. Kashmir 
State, India. An illustration to show primitive weaving and a “home¬ 
made” loom. Xote also the keyed mortis construction at the corner of 
the wooden building in the rear, the framing of the house at the right 
and the decorative treatment of the spinning wheel. 

































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A modern school loom in operation in the East Technical High School. Cleveland, Ohio. Compare 
this with the loom from India. practical means of utilizing design and hand work. 
































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